Publications

(2022) A1 Journal Article in ATMOSPHERE, 13(11).

(2022) RESEARCH IN TRANSPORTATION BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT. 45(part C).

Due to economic and geographical causes, the reformation of rail freight transport is now in progress in a number of countries. Railroads are ideal for moving huge quantities of non-bulk, specialised, and bulk cargo. Malaysia's rail network has developed in comparison to other modes. However, its administration and contributions are little researched and frequently unclear in the current literature. In this country, rail is mostly used for passenger transportation, and the amount of rail freight in maritime trade is negligible compared to road freight. This scenario affects the efficacy of inter-regional and intra-regional freight delivery, diminishes the competitiveness of seaports, creates a monopoly for road freight transport, and depletes road infrastructure for extensively facilitated road freight transit. This article focuses on investigating concerns about existing rail freight transport and its improvement methods, the influence of rail freight transport on seaport competitiveness, and the relationship between rail freight transport and seaport dwell time. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to achieve the goals of this work. Approximately forty (40) Malaysian rail operators, their clients, and multimodal transport operators participated in the online survey. The findings indicate that the primary challenges with the Malaysian rail system are performance, transit time reliability, and capacity use. Improving the rail infrastructure will have a good impact on the service dependability, freight distribution, and operation management of a seaport. By enforcing institutional integration, expanding infrastructure support systems, and successfully managing infrastructure maintenance, the rail system may be enhanced. By synchronising seaport operation, efficiency, management, and container rotation, rail freight operations can enhance seaport transit time. To maintain trade competitiveness and provide a balanced freight distribution network, the role of rail freight must be increased.

(2022) Atmospheric Pollution Research, 101518

Along the worldwide tightening of standards for sulphur emission from ocean going vessels (OGVs) come actions that are also being taken to reduce nitrogen emission. Particularly, as a milestone in this regard, on January 1st, 2021 the NOx Emission Control Area (NECA) for the North Sea and Baltic Sea came into effect. In response to the newly established NECA, the sniffer sensor system on the Belgian coastguard aircraft was modified and extended with a NOx sensor. Moreover, a methodology was developed to evaluate OGV compliance to the NOx emission limits through in situ measurements of the plume exhaust. The quality and uncertainty of the measurements demonstrate that it is likely to achieve an effective compliance monitoring of the NOx emission standards on the sea. Those emission standards are further divided into four tiers depending on the keel laying date. As has been proved by the results, NOx emissions for Tier II OGVs, contrary to what might be expected, are on average higher than those for Tier I OGVs. What is even more problematic, Tier II OGVs have also more often been found to be non-compliant than Tier I OGVs.

(2022) RESEARCH IN TRANSPORTATION BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT.

Shipping lines have recently been reshaping their operations to include more logistics integration, which could indicate a change in business strategy. This paper analyses recent developments in the strategic paths of Maersk Line, CMA CGM and MSC in the context of logistics integration and presents empirical findings on their strategic positions and associated drivers. By applying a conceptual framework highlighting and exploring various key strategic, tactical, and operational issues, the study provides an in-depth overview of logistics integration in liner shipping. First, we perform a literature review to figure out how the literature on logistics integration has changed over time in response to economic cycles and corporate interests. Second, we present a conceptual research framework exploring the ways in which logistics integration takes place among Maersk Line, CMA CGM and MSC. Third, we empirically demonstrate that different facets, building blocks and attributes shape the strategic path of these three shipping lines. A summary reading grid facilitates the concluding analysis of logistics integration developments at work within the three container carriers. The multi-case study provides empirical findings on intra- and inter-carrier differences in the temporal paths of logistics integration, the spatial coverage when rolling out integration initiatives and the implementation methods.

New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law, Vol. 25, 2021

On 30 September 2021, the Supreme Court released its much-anticipated judgment unanimously dismissing the appeal by Trans-Tasman Resources (TTR) in the long-standing legal dispute surrounding its application for seabed mining consents under the Exclusive Economic (Environmental Effects) Act 2012 (EEZ Act). The proceedings have attracted considerable international and domestic interest from legal scholars and commentators, in addition to the concerns of environmental non-government organisations, affected iwi, and commercial fishing parties who opposed TTR’s application (opposing parties). The judgment has far-reaching implications for marine management in terms of state implementation of international law obligations and Indigenous rights, including the importance of tikanga Māori (Māori law and custom) in Aotearoa New Zealand. It provides valuable guidance and directions to decision-makers as to the scope and function of the EEZ Act, in line with New Zealand’s international obligations, and Crown obligations under Te Tiriti o Waitangi/the Treaty of Waitangi (the Treaty).

(2022) MARITIME ECONOMICS & LOGISTICS. 24(3). p.537-565

This study focuses on the automation of terminal equipment used to handle containers. A dataset was compiled, which includes 63 fully and semi-automated container terminals in operation around the world, their organizational features, technical dimensions, and the maritime and urban markets they serve. The data analysis focuses on where, when, under which conditions, and to what extent container terminals were automated, and who is responsible for implementing terminal automation. Only 3% of the world's container terminals were found to be either fully or semi-automated. A survey-based analysis of global terminal operators identifies how they implement their automation and the time necessary for terminal operators to start realizing a return on their investment. The results systematically map global automated terminal characteristics. Acknowledging that not all container terminals are candidates for automation of terminal equipment, this paper contributes to extant literature by presenting a systematic review of all global automated terminals in order to substantiate or refute any perceptions that might exist on their characteristics, for example, in terms of minimum cargo volumes needed for automation. The findings can provide some guidance to market actors considering investments in automation and public and private port authority decision makers that might also commit resources to automation.

(2022) ATMOspheric Pollution Research, Volume 13, Issue 6, June 2022, 101445

Air pollution from fossil fuel powered ocean-going vessels (OGVs) is responsible for various environmental and human health issues worldwide. Specifically for sulfur oxides (SO_x), from 2010 onwards, stricter standards came into force regarding the maximum allowable fuel sulfur content (FSC) in marine fuels in the European Sulfur Emission Control Area (SECA). A method was developed for the airborne monitoring of OGVs to evaluate their compliance by equipping the Belgian coastguard aircraft with a sniffer sensor. The sensor allows a highly accurate FSC determination based on real-time CO₂ and SO₂ measurements in the smoke plume of OGVs. For 5 years the aircraft collected the largest set of airborne emission measurement data from OGVs as of today. This article demonstrates the effectiveness and reliability of the airborne monitoring methodology in an operational setup for targeting ship inspections in ports and a more efficient impact monitoring of shipping on air quality.

(2022) no. 1, International Association of Ports & Harbors (IAPH), 2022, p. 18.

(2022) Annual Report of Valencia Containerized Freight Index (VCFI). p.10-15

As in every year, this report seeks to review the factors that have influenced the evolution of the Valencia Containerised Freight Index (VCFI) in 2021 - the year of anticipated economic recovery following the crisis caused by the pandemic, but still very much affected by the evolving health situation. The different sections of the report will analyse in greater detail the situation of the international economy in 2021, in which strong growth data relating to some areas are clouded by the serious threat of the return of inflation, as well as the behaviour of international trade and its impact on supply chains. The maritime industry has had to deal with outstanding growth in demand, which supply has had difficulty meeting, thus causing ongoing problems of logistical tensions and congestion at key ports within the system, and both reducing available maritime capacity and pushing up transport prices to record levels. This trend will be analysed both at a general level and by geographical area, focusing on three of Valenciaport’s main markets: the United States and Canada, the Far East and the Western Mediterranean.

(2022) Ports & Harbors - A magazine of International Association of Ports and Harbors (IAPH). 67(3). p.18-20

(2022) TRANSPORT POLICY. 116. p.24-47

Since the inception of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013, the associated infrastructure and transport and economic corridor developments have been widely addressed in the research field of transportation, logistics and supply chain management. Such developments open windows of opportunity for accommodating trade flows in new or upgraded intermediate hub nodes and gateway locations along the BRI corridors. This paper aims to propose strategic locations for global logistics distribution centers (LDCs) along the Belt and Road from the viewpoint of China, considering regional economic and trade blocks, maritime transport routes, China's overseas port developments, China Railway Express services, trade conflicts between China and US, and deteriorated mobility of resources and human power caused by COVID-19. We present a set of strategic locations for establishing LDCs by analyzing qualitative and quantitative facility location factors supported by the findings in existing literature. Eight locations for global LDCs are identified in the Sub-Saharan region, Sri Lanka, the Middle East, Northern Oceania, Southern Europe, Northern Europe, and key dry hub port locations in Minsk, Belarus and Northeast Asia along the Silk Road Economic Belt. Furthermore, we present a research agenda with applicable methods.

(2022) Knowledge Guide Coast and Sea - Compendium for Coast and Sea. p. 31-55

Tegenwoordig wordt meer dan 80% van de globale handel (in volume) over de zee vervoerd, goed voor 11,1 miljard ton aan goederen in 2019 (+0,5% t.o.v. 2018) (UNCTAD 2020, UNCTADSTAT). De economische en sociale verstoringen als gevolg van COVID-19 hebben de wereldhandel in 2020 negatief beïnvloed met een gemiddelde waardedaling van 9%. De grootste negatieve impact werd opgetekend in de eerste helft van 2020 met een waardereductie van 15%. Vanaf het derde kwartaal begon de wereldhandel zich reeds te herstellen, in hoofdzaak te danken aan de toename in handel in goederen, terwijl de handel in diensten tot op vandaag ver onder het gemiddelde presteert (Pallis et al. 2021, UNCTAD 2021a, UNCTAD 2021b). In het eerste kwartaal van 2021 stond de totale wereldhandel reeds op een hoger waardeniveau (+3%) dan in hetzelfde kwartaal van 2019 (i.e. vóór de crisis), in hoofdzaak aangedreven door de sterke exportprestaties van de Oost-Aziatische economieën (UNCTAD 2021b).

(2022) Knowledge Guide Coast and Sea - Compendium for Coast and Sea. p. 31-55

Currently, more than 80% of global trade (by volume) is transported by sea, accounting for 11.1 billion tonnes of goods in 2019 (+0.5% vs. 2018) (UNCTAD 2020, UNCTADSTAT). The economic and social disruptions caused by COVID-19 negatively impacted world trade in 2020 with an average decline in value of 9%. The greatest negative impact was recorded in the first half of 2020 with a 15% value reduction. From the third quarter onwards, world trade started to recover, mainly due to the increase in trade in goods, while trade in services remains far below average (Pallis et al. 2021, UNCTAD 2021a, UNCTAD 2021b). In the first quarter of 2021, total world trade was already at a higher level (+3%) than in the same quarter of 2019 (i.e. before the crisis), mainly driven by the strong export performance of the East Asian economies (UNCTAD 2021b).

(2022) GEOJOURNAL

A port system is a system of two or more ports, located in proximity within a given area. In literature, various geographical and functional scales have been identified ranging from complete coastlines to the notions of a 'range' and a 'multi-port gateway region'. Not only does the spatial scale create confusion on the true functional delineation of port systems, but it also complicates a clear understanding of the relational mechanisms at stake within these port systems. This paper revisits existing approaches to and empirical delineations of port systems. Maritime network analysis techniques are deployed to understand hierarchies and interdependencies among nodes of container port systems and sub-systems in North Europe and Northeast Asia. The results provide additional insights on how ports interact from a maritime services' perspectives and demonstrate whether or not ports which are traditionally considered as belonging to the same port system can in reality be considered forming a fully integrated port system.

(2022) TRANSPORT POLICY. 118. p.112-122

Chinese enterprises have invested in more than 100 overseas ports globally in the past two decades, but their contribution to the local terminal's competitiveness remains unclear. Differing from the existing qualitative geopolitical interpretation of China-labeled port projects, this study empirically investigates how investor attributes with Chinese characteristics affect the throughput evolution and market shares of the respective container terminals. Our primary focus is on terminal-level performance to eliminate non-Chinese investors' influence in focal ports with multiple terminals. Pooled regression is used to analyze panel data for 68 overseas container terminals of three Chinese international port operators (COSCO Shipping Ports, China Merchants Holdings International and Hutchison Ports) from 2008 to 2019. The regression results show that being a stateowned enterprise, owing a vessel fleet and higher project ownership would benefit the focal container terminal's market share. In contrast, shareholder complexity may adversely impact the terminal's competitiveness. An interesting finding is that for state-owned enterprises, investments in politically unstable areas with fewer regional ports are more likely to result in a greater market share. These findings provide managerial implications for enterprises and enrich literature on foreign port investment.

(2022) International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law. 37.

One of the vital principles within the international regime governing the deep seabed is the status of the Area (comprising the seabed and subsoil beyond national jurisdiction) and its mineral resources as the common heritage of mankind. This abstract concept encompasses a wide array of interrelated components, though one of the most crucial premises is that activities in the Area must be carried out for the benefit of mankind as a whole, entailing equitable sharing of financial and other economic benefits derived from deep sea mining operations. As a result, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) is tasked with developing a suitable payment and distribution mechanism, which takes the needs and interests of developing States into particular consideration. This article analyses the overarching rules and principles, assesses the available options and offers insightful thoughts on the way forward.

Data in Brief, Volume 40, February 2022, 107704

The dataset presented in this article contains information about marine Area-Based Management Tools (ABMTs) used to assess their contribution to the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. Following the scope of the analysis, ABMTs were identified by scrutinizing international and regional legal sources related to ocean management in the fields of marine conservation, fisheries, deep sea bed mining, underwater natural and cultural heritage, environmental conservation, and marine spatial planning. Legal sources were screened to depict the following characteristics of individual ABMTs: i) management objectives; ii) authorities responsible for delivering such objectives; iii) the system of management and planning entailed in the ABMT including the zoning type; and iv) the specific spatial scope and domain each ABMT refer to in vertical depth and horizontal domain. Data were generated through an internal expert elicitation. Experts, initially trained in the data analysis and related protocol, contributed to the data production because of their specific knowledge and experience in ocean management. This dataset represents a unique source of information for advancing research about monitoring and assessment of the achievement of sustainable development goals that encompasses different types of ABMTs.

(2022) Journal of International Maritime Law. 27(5). p.302-312

Taking into account that deep sea mining activities in the Area can only be conducted in accordance with the rules and principles of the international deep seabed regime, compliance is a very important element. However, owing to the specific characteristics of deep sea mining, designing appropriate monitoring and inspection mechanisms is not an easy task. With regard to monitoring, a wide range of options and technologies is available, and the challenge of onsite inspections is to do this in the most cost-efficient way, while minimising interference with deep sea mining activities. Independence should evidently be guaranteed, as well as complementarity between the efforts of the ISA and the sponsoring states. This article analyses the legal regime concerning monitoring and inspection of deep sea mining activities as it stands, evaluates the recent proposals and available options, and provides suggestions on the way forward.

(2022) MARITIME TRANSPORT RESEARCH. 3.

Port managing bodies (PMBs) need to respond to increased societal pressures for improving environmental performance. For many PMBs, a modal shift (MS) from road to rail and barge transport (where available) represents a strategic priority. Yet, in practice, few PMBs have set clear MS targets or have been able to achieve their MS objectives at the level of the port cluster. In this context, the extant port management literature has not yet provided actionable and generally applicable conceptual guidance for PMBs towards achieving ambitious MS goals. In this paper, we develop such guidance by following a contract theory approach to the effectiveness of MS strategies implemented by PMBs. We argue that a PMB, in its role of port cluster manager, can facilitate a MS through strategically deploying governance mechanisms based on sound economic theory. Here, an arsenal of incentives and penalties can be used to push port users (PUs) towards achieving MS targets. Building upon insight from contract theory, we also assess the importance of information management as a prerequisite for a successful MS strategy. We formulate strategic directions for PMBs and identify a future research agenda that should allow improved understanding of how MS goals can be achieved in real world settings.

Journal of Cleaner Production Volume 330 (33), 1 January 2022 (34), 129910 (35)

Area-Based Management Tools (ABMTs) are spatial instruments for conservation and managing different forms of ocean use. A multitude of ABMTs exists in marine areas within and beyond national jurisdiction, ranging from tools for the regulation of specific human activities (e.g. fisheries, shipping, or mining) to cross-sectoral tools (e.g. such as marine protected areas, MPAs, and marine spatial planning, MSP). By applying expert elicitation and reviewing scientific and grey literature we evaluate the contribution of ABMTs to sustainable development goals (SDGs) as set out under the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including for SDG 14 that directly addresses the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas, and marine resources. We find that fisheries-related and conservation-related ABMTs, and MSP offer the greatest potential contributions to SDG 14 and to SDGs in general. Moreover, there is high complementarity and synergy among different ABMTs for most SDG 14 targets and other SDGs, with the exception of SDG target 14.6 Prohibit fisheries subsidies and SDG 7 Affordable and clean energy. We find that some ABMTs contribute directly to goal attainment, while others contribute in more nuanced or even unexpected ways. Furthermore, context-specific factors that relate to political and legal factors, enforceability, transparency, governance structure, and inclusivity are crucial for unlocking the full potential of ABMTs of attaining multiple SDGs, as shown through examples. The major challenge to face in the next decade is ensuring durable and equitable outcomes from ABMT implementation by coordinating ABMT initiatives established by different organisations and responsible authorities. It is also critical that outcomes are monitored and evaluated across environmental, social, economic, governance, and health dimensions, with indicators addressing management effectiveness and not only ABMT area coverage.

(2022) Perspectives on deep-sea mining : sustainability, technology, environmental policy and management. p.661-680

In view of the principle of the common heritage of mankind and the duty to carry out activities in the Area for the benefit of mankind as a whole, the interests and needs of developing states must be taken into account. Diverse mechanisms were devised to make sure that developing states are able to participate in deep-sea mining activities in the Area and receive an equitable share of the benefits, but most of these measures are yet to be implemented and the recent trend of partnerships between private deep-sea mining companies and developing states might jeopardize the original objectives.

In many ports of the European Union (EU), public port authorities routinely award terminal contracts to private operators who undertake substantial capital investment in port superstructure such as terminal surface layout, handling equipment, and warehouses. This well-nigh traditional collaboration can be considered a form of PPP avant la lettre. Partnerships where the private terminal operator also finances the port infrastructure, such as capital dredging, quay walls, or even breakwaters and locks, are rare in the EU. There are several reasons for this, including the strong role of the public sector in ports, the availability of sufficient public funding sources, and the usually satisfactory functioning of the classic combination of public infrastructure investment and private superstructure investment. Generally, the setting up of PPPs in EU ports does not seem to encounter major legal obstacles deriving from either Union or national law. However, port terminal contracts in the EU Member States take different forms. In the few cases of private infrastructure investment, models are lacking, and there is often experimentation, which entails risks. There is scope for EU institutions to issue a guidance instrument that offers practical, legal, and financial advice and explains best practices on both classic and innovative PPPs in ports.

(Part of the Competitive Government: Public Private Partnerships book series (CGPPP))

Virginie Tilot, Bleuenn Gaëlle Guilloux, Klaas Willaert, Clement Yow Mulalap, Tamatoa Bambridge, François Gaulme, Edwige Kacenelenbogen, Alain Jeudy de Grissac, Juan Moreno Navas and Arthur Lyon Dahl
(2022) Perspectives on deep-sea mining : sustainability, technology, environmental policy and management. p.613-659

Traditional knowledge, customary marine management approaches and integrated relationships between biodiversity, ecosystems and local communities promote conservation and ensure that marine benefits are reaped in a holistic, sustainable and equitable manner as fostered by contemporary ocean governance. However, the interaction between traditional knowledge, the present scientific approach to marine resource management and specific regulatory frameworks has often been challenging. To a certain extent, the value of community practices and customary rules, which has provided an incentive for regional cooperation and coordination, is acknowledged in several legal systems of the Pacific Island States and a number of regional and international instruments, but this important interconnectivity can certainly be perfected. Based on recent multidisciplinary research (Tilot et al., 2021a; 2021b), this chapter presents a science-based overview of the marine habitats and activities that would be affected by deep seabed mining (DSM) in the Pacific region, along with an analysis of the traditional dimensions and their interconnectivity with the socio-ecological aspects of marine resource management. We then assess whether the applicable regulatory frameworks attach sufficient importance to these traditional dimensions of seabed resource management and cultural representation in the Pacific region. On basis of this analysis, we identify best practices and formulate recommendations with regard to the current regulatory frameworks and seabed resource management approaches to reconcile competing values of the Pacific communities and to sustain the health of the Global Ocean.